Name : Siti nur rokayah (07430422)
Class : PBI-E
Language in use
Pragmatics is the study context of meaning. Pragmatics relationship between speaker, hearer, situation, beliefs and intentions.
A language is a system of communication in speech and writing used by people or is a system of symbols through which people communicate. Conventional signs have human senders as well as human receiver each one has an intention and an interpretation.
The meaning of sentence is group of words that express statement and questions, and utterance is a spoken of words or the meaning of the sentence plus the meaning of the circumstances. Sentence it can be an utterance but the utterance it can’t be a sentence. for example : “right” (utterance), and “it’s right” (sentence).
Name : Siti nur rokayah (07430422)
Class : PBI-E
The dimensions of meaning
Denotation is the core or central meaning of a word or lexeme, as far as it can be described in a dictionary. Denotation is thus related to connotation. Connotation is the idea or quality suggested by a word in addition to its main meaning. Sense relations is the meaning of any expression varies with context, what other expression it occurs with and what expression varies with contrasts with.
Morphemes are the smallest individually meaningful element is the utterances of a language.
Homonymy is a word spelt and pronounced like another word but with a different meaning. Such as bank “a financial institution” and bank “the edge of a stream,” pronunciation and spelling are identical but meanings are unrelated. Polysemy is a word or phrase with multiple meanings or it is words having meaning or meaning of multiple caused by many concept components in useful a word. For example: the noun “head”, for instance, seems to have related meanings when we speak of the head of a person, the head of a company, head of a table or bed, a head of lettuce or cabbage.
Lexical ambiguity is the presence of two or more possible meanings within a single word. For example:”I was on my way to the bank.” Of course the ambiguity is not likely to be sustained in a longer discourse.
Name : Siti nur rokayah (07430422)
Class : PBI-E
Semantic roles
A proposition is itself usually expressed as a sentence has truth condition (is something abstract but meaningful). we can see distinguish of propositions. For example:
Sentence : Helen put on a sweater
Propositions : Helen put a sweater on
A proposition consists of a predicate and varying numbers of arguments, or referring expression
A semantic role is the underlying relationship that a participant has with the main verb in a clause. Different predicates-verbs, adjectives, prepositions-can be described according to the number of referring expressions, or arguments, that can occur with them and the roles these arguments have. Valency theory is a description of the semantic potential of predicates in terms of the number and types of arguments which may co-occur with them. And valencies divided of three valencies, that is: valency zero, valency one, and valency and two.
TRANSITION AND TRANSFER PREDICATES
Predicates that have a valency of more than two. Predicates express transition, movement from one place to another, respectively the source and the goal, it have arguments in the roles of theme or actor, source, goal and path, though the last three are not necessarily expressed in a sentence. For example :
a. The bus goes from Greenville to Stratford.
b. The bus goes from Greenville to Stratford by way of Compton.
Sentence (a.) tells of the movement of an inanimate object from one place, the source, to another place, the goal.
Argument¹ Predicate Argument² Argument³
Theme Action Source Goal
Bus go Greenville Stratford
Sentence (b.) have express a Path, a place or area between the source and goal.
Theme Source Goal Path
Bus Greenville Stratford Compton
Sentence with transition verbs have this argument structure
Transition verbs
Theme or actor source goal path
Predicates express transfer causing the movement of an entity from one place or person to another place or person. Movement through space requires some amount of time, so that a semantic account of some predicates has to include a time frame (include a time zero, a later time, and perhaps an earlier time).
For example :
1. Fenwick drives a bus from Greenville to Stratford by way of compton
2. The king banished the rebels from his realm (to another land).
Agent theme source goal path
Fenwick bus Greenville Stratford Compton
Agent affected source goal
King rebels realm land
The role structure in 1 is similar to 2 but of course the king does not move with the rebels. Thus two sorts of transfer verbs can be distinguished, typified by drive, in which the agent moves, and banish, in which the agent does not move.
These are shown on the timescales below.
Drive time 0 time +
Agent and theme at source agent and theme at goal
Bunish time 0 time +
Theme at source theme at goal
Drive
Name : Siti nur rokayah (07430422)
Class : PBI-E
REFERENCE
A referring expression is a piece of a language, a noun phrase, that is used in an utterance and is linked to something outside language, some living or dead or imaginary entity or concept or group of entities or concepts. That something is referent, not necessarily physical nor necessarily real.
The extension of a laxeme is the set of entities which it denotes. The extension of dog includes all collies, Dalmatians, dachshunds, mongrels, etc. The intension of any laxeme is the set of properties shared by all members of the extension.
Three kinds of differences in referents are:
1. concrete and abstract;
lexemes such as dog, door, leaf, stone, denote concrete objects, which can be seen or touched. The objects denoted by lexemes like idea, problem, reason, knowledge are abstract, they cannot be perceived directly through the senses.
2. unique and non-unique;
3. countable and non-countable.
Abstract countable phrases have such noun as idea, problem, suggestion. Non-countable phrases, if their references are concrete. A few non- countables are like furniture, jewelry, luggage, collections whose parts have quite different names.
There are three kinds of referring expressions: proper names, which have unique reference like Lake Ontario or Barbara Collins; pronouns such as she, he, they. Anaphora; and noun phrases that have nouns with variable reference as the head.
Every language has deictic words which point to things in the physical-social context of the speaker and addressees and whose referent can only be determined by knowing the context in which they are used. For example, if we should encounter a message like the following, on paper or on an electronic recording.
The definite determiner the occurs in a referring expression when the speaker assumes that the hearer can identify the referent (I’ve got the tickets). Indefinite determiners, a(n), some and zero, indicate that the referent is part of a larger entity.
Anaphora is a kind of secondary reference in which a previous reference is recalled by use of special function words or equivalent lexemes. For example, Jack and Jill tried to lift the box and push it onto the stop shelf.
Referential ambiguity occurs when the context does not make clear whether a referring expression is being used specifically or not, when the interpretation of a referring expression can be collective or distributed, and when it is not clear to which of two or more referring expressions an anaphoric item is linked. For example, - I wanted to buy a newspaper; - If you want to get ahead, you have to work hard; - I’m buying a drink for everybody here.
NAME : SITI NUR ROKAYAH (07430422)
CLASS : PBI-E/ VII
SENTENCES AS ARGUMENTS
The arguments were all referring expressions, names for real or potential entities. An argument can also be a predication, a real or potential fact, and such an argument is expressed as a clause that is, a sentence that is embedded in another sentence. Full statement clauses
(2a Sally forgot her appointment.) and (2b Sally forgot (that) Sara was waiting for her.)
In 2a a noun phrase is object of the verb. 2b a clause occurs in the same place and with the same role. Sentences 2b has an analogous relation to 2a. A combination of adjective and preposition may be followed by an abstract complement: aware of the problem, disappointed in the result, sorry for the trouble. The same adjectives may have clause as complement, in which case the preposition disappears.
5 Jean is disappointed (that) you can’t join us. Here are some other adjectives that can be followed by a clause with the preposition dropping out:
Afraid-of aware-of (un)certain-about confident-of disappointed-in doubtful-of/about sure-of
Affected predicate S-theme
Jean disappointed actor pred
You join…
Question clauses
Questions, as well as statements, are embedded in other sentences. For example:
10 Robert doesn’t know what time it is. (what time is it?)
A yes/no question may present two or more alternatives, e.g. will your friends stay or leave? When such an alternative question is embedded it is introduced with the word whether.
14 I wonder whether your friends will stay or leave.
Infinitive clauses
A rule of English grammar requires an overt subject in an infinitive clause when the subject of the infinitive is different from the subject of the main verb. If the subject of the infinitive is the same as the subject of the main verb, there is a tacit subject.
Gerund clauses
A group of verbs that can have as object an infinitive clause without to or a gerund clause. A gerund clause has a verb with the suffix-ing. The subject of the gerund is the same as the subject of the main verb.
Non-factual clauses
Clauses divided four kinds, they are: full statement, full questions, infinitive and gerund. The full clause (I insist that Ronald works very hard) is a factual clause. And the name nonfactual clause to embedded clause of (I insist that Ronald should work very hard), with or without should.
Verbal nouns
Verbal noun is formed like the gerund by adding -ing. In French-Latin-Greek part of our vocabulary, however, verbal nouns are formed in a number of different ways but are always distinct from gerunds; for example, discovery, explanation, improvement, response versus discovering, explaining, improving, responding.
Comparing types of clauses
Different kinds of clauses can present different kinds of meanings, but this is obvious only when the same predicate can be accompanied by different kinds of clauses. Example of infinitive clause and a full clause and gerund clause and full clause (-We agreed to meet again the next day.) and (Your son admitted breaking our window.)s
Syntactic ambiguity
Syntactic ambiguity may be in the surface structure of a sentence: words can cluster together in different possible constructions. Syntactic ambiguity may also be in the deep structure: one sequence of words may have more than one interpretation. Example of surface ambiguity and deep structure ambiguity:
- John and Mary or Pat will go.
- Over taking cars on the main road can be dangerous
(‘Overtaking cars is dangerous’ or ‘‘Cars overtaking are dangerous’)
- The chicken is too hot to eat
(‘Too hot to eat anything’ or ‘too hot for anybody to eat it’)
- I like Mary better than Joan.
(‘Better than I like Joan’ or ‘better than Joan likes Mary’).
NAME : SITI NUR ROKAYAH (07430422)
CLASS : PBI-E/ VII
ASPECT
Aspect is both grammatical and lexical it is predicates, especially in verb inflections and collocations of verbs; it’s beginning to break, it’s breaking, it broke, it’s broken.
Generic and specific predications
1a. two and two make four.
1b. rabbits are rodents.
2a. Gregory is here.
2b. I have a headache.
Sentences 1a and 1b are eternal truth, statements about things that we do not expect to change. They report unbounded situations, or states. Sentences 2a and 2b are about temporary states: they are bounded. The difference shows up in the fact that we can add certain aspectual modifiers, affirmative and negative.
2a’ Gregory is already here.
2b’ I still have a headache.
Sentences 2a and 2b state that certain situations exist at the present time. Sentences 2a’ and 2b’ contain the same information but the aspectual modifiers call attention to boundaries, the beginning or the end of these states, changes from one to state another.
Stative predicates and dynamic predicates
A statitve predicate is a report a state that requires no expenditure of energy and that continues until energy is expended to change that state.
A dynamic predicate reports a situation that will only continue if there is a continual input of energy, but it ceases when energy is no longer expended. Dynamic verbs include those that express some form of physical movement: come, drift, float, go, hop, jump, pound, rotate, run, swim, turn, vibrate, walk.
Durative and punctual
Albert kicked a ball and the ball struck a post
This sentence contains two verbs that have a punctual aspect. Kicking and striking normally designate actions that are momentary. A sentence like Albert kicked a ball for ten minuteshas a repetitive, or iterative, meaning. A number of verbs, sometimes referred to as verbs of mental activity, occur in both punctual and durative uses:
a. I (suddenly) remembered that I had an appointment at two
b. I remembered (all along) what she had told me.
Sentences 'b’ tell of a state in existence and sentence ‘a’ express ingressive aspect (inchoative or inceptive aspect), the action of entering into a state.
Telic and atelic
Four way classification of predicates as stative, activity, achievement, and accomplishment predicates a classification that derives essentially stative and activity predicates are atelic, and achievement predicates are telic.
Ingressive, continuative, egressive aspect.
Uneven matrixes of such predicates have been illustrated for the areas they are: Predicates of location, predicates of possession, predicates of cognition, event predicates, nouns and adjectives as predicates, and aspectual verbs.
Prospective and retrospective
- We asked Ronald to drive slower
- Jessica is thinking of visiting her grandmother
We call such verbs as ask and think of prospective verbs they are oriented toward later happenings.
- Edgar apologized for missing the meeting.
- We denied seeing the report.
In both sentences the clause is about something that did or did not precede the apologizing and denying. Verbs like apologize and deny are retrospective verbs.
Some grammatical expressions of aspect
If an aspectual meaning can be expressed with all or a significant number of the predicates of a language, the expression is grammatical. Three aspects that are incorporated into the grammatical system of English, they are; prospective, perfect or perfective, and progressive.
NAME : SITI NUR ROKAYAH (07430422)
CLASS : PBI-E/VI
FACTIVITY, IMPLICATION AND MODALITY
Presupposition is the information that must be assumed in order for a sentence to be meaningful; have you stopped beating our wife?
A factive predicate has a predication as one of its arguments (a full clause, gerund clause or an abstract noun phrase) and whether affirmative or negative, it presupposes the truth of that predication.
Examples of factive predicates:
- I regret /don’t regret that smoking can cause cancer.
>> smoking can cause cancer.
- I resent/don’t resent John’s decision.
>> John decided something.
- We decided/didn’t decide to stay for a while. >>?
The predicates regret, resent, forget surprising and amazing, remarkable and others are factive. The predicates believe, decide, likely, assert, hope, probable, and others are nonfactive predicates. One predicate is counterfactive.
Implicative predicates
Some predicates do not presuppose the truth of a proposition that occurs as one of their arguments but carry some implication about the truth or non-truth of the proposition an interesting variety of implications and can recognize different kinds of implicative predicates (called conditional factives). Six groups of predicates according to what they imply about the truth value of included clause. If the predicate is affirmative, it implies that the following proposition is true, and if the predicate is negative, there is an implication that the following proposition is false.
Modality
Modality is the expression of necessity, possibility and probability, often through modal verbs. Examples of modality:
- It’s your duty to visit your ailing parents.
- You ought to visit your ailing parents.
Modality can be expressed in nouns like duty, obligation, probability, likelihood; in adjectives like necessary, possible, likely, in adverbs such as obviously, probably, perhaps; but for description of how modality is expressed in English we need to concentrate on modal verbs, verbs like ought and may.
Deontic modality is typically necessity of existence on some entity, generally expressed in the subject of the sentence. Epistemic modality is centered on the whole predication.
Possibility, impossibility and degrees of probability that are centered on whole propositions.
NAME : SITI NUR ROKAYAH (07430422)
CLASS : PBIE-E/ VI
A VARIETY OF PREDICATES
Attitudinal predicates
An attitudinal predicate is a verb or adjective that expresses the feelings of the subject: I hate this music, I’m fond of swimming.
In the first six types (A-F) the subject of the sentences is the affected and what affects is a specific predication, a potential act.
- intent regarding one’s own possible performance
Jenkins intends to withdraw from the race. —— Verbs: aim, mean, intend
Intend
affected S-theme
jenkins agent predicate
Jenkins withdraw…
Aspect: prospective
- mental rehearsing of possible performance
Jenkins considered withdrawing from the race.
Verbs: consider, contemplate
Enabling and preventing
An enabling predicate is a verb or adjective which tells that the following predication is made possible: we allowed the car pass. A preventing is a verb which states that an agent causes the non-occurrence of the predication that follows: I kept the ball from rolling way. The opposite of enabling is preventing, disenabling. Here three types can be recognized; a preventing by use of authority, preventing through effort, and preventing through speech.
Perceptual verbs also called sensory verbs, the meaning of perceptual verbs is a verb that expresses the activity of any of the five senses. The difference between gerund clause and infinitive clause is clear with perceptual verbs(but not necessarily with other kinds of verbs). English and perhaps not just English makes more distinctions regarding vision than hearing, and more about hearing than feeling, tasting, or smelling
NAME : SITI NUR ROKAYAH (07430422)
CLASS : PBI-E/ VI
THE SEMANTICS OF MORPHOLOGICAL RELATIONS
Formal processes of derivation
There are four different types of derivational relationship between words: addition, mutation (the words proud and pride are semantically related and are related formally as well, but it is impossible to say that one is formed by adding something to the other), conversion (this is the simple change of a word of one class to a word of another class with no formal alteration) and subtraction (by removing parts of certain lexemes new lexemes are formed).
Semantic processes in derivation
Nouns represent entities, verbs represent activities or states, and adjectives represent qualities or characteristics. Qualifier is a word or phrase that modifies another word, thereby limiting the reference of that word: very nice, big enough.
A noun or verb converted to an adjective gives a word that names a quality associated with some entity (e.g. milky) or act (e.g. congratulatory). Many such adjectives, however, are simply linguistic conversions: an adjective like periodic does not really mean something different from period; it has only a different use in sentences.
Verbs formed from nouns
We present a classification with a few illustrations of each type and then discuss the classes with more examples. Here N stands for the noun from which the verb V is derived and X means the object of the verb, if there is one. The four kinds of verbs formed from nouns, there are: transfer meanings, effective meanings, instrumental meanings, and vehicular meanings (instrument+transfer).
Verbs from adjectives
Adjectives are typically stative predicates: the dishes/towels are dry. Verbs derived from adjectives are either causative, as in (Ella dried the dishes) Ella caused the dishes to be/ become dry, or inchoative, as in (the towels dried(in the sun)) the towels became dry. Both sentences report the inception of a status named by the adjective.
Verbs from verbs
In English nearly all other verbs derived from verbs have prefixes. Folded and unfolded indicate a resultative status.
Adjectives derived from verbs
Adjectives derived from verbs are either active-subjective or passive objectives. An envious person is one who envies, an enviable person is one that we envy, one to be envied. Envious is active-subjective. Enviable is passive objective
Adjective derived from nouns
Class-descriptive; affecting-descriptive; affected-descriptive
Adjectives from adjectives
Tendency; negative
Noun from verbs
Action; effect; agent/instrument; affected; place
Nouns from adjectives
Abstract; characterized
Nouns from nouns
Place; persons
NAME : SITI NUR ROKAYAH
CLASS : PBI-E/VII
SPEECH ACTS
Sentences are traditionally designated declarative if they tell something, interrogative if they ask, or imperative if they request action, but this classification is based on the forms of sentences.
Syntactically it is common to recognize three sentence types in English: statement, command and question or declarative, imperative and interrogatory sentences.
The utterance, can be called the locution. What the speaker intends to communicate to the addressee is the illocution. The message that the addressee gets, his interpretation of what the speaker says, is the perlocution. Such communication is guided by four factors, which Grice called maxims: the maxim of quantity, relevance, manner and quality.
Seven kinds of speech acts
Assertive utterances
In the assertive function speakers and writers use language to tell what they know or believe; assertive language is concerned with facts. The purpose is to inform.
Performative utterances
We accept your offer.
Speech acts that bring about the state of affairs they name are called performative: bids, blessings, firings, baptisms, arrests, marrying, declaring a mistrial.
Verdictive utterances
Verdictives are speech acts in which the speaker makes an assessment or judgment about the acts of another, usually the addressee. These include ranking, assessing, appraising, condoning. Verdictive verbs include accuse, charge, excuse, thank in the explicit frame I you of/for –ing.
Expressive utterances
The most common expressive verbs (in this sense of expressive) are; acknowledge, admit, confess, deny and apologize.
Directive utterances
Directive utterances are those in which the speaker tries to get the addressee to perform some act or refrain from performing an act.
(You) wait here.
A directive utterance is prospective; one cannot tell other people to do something in the past.
Commissive utterances
Speech acts that commit a speaker to a course of action are called commissive utterances. These include promises, pledges, threats and vows.
Four speech acts compared
The last four speech acts:
Verdictive retrospective addressee-involved
Expressive retrospective speakers-involved
Directive prospective addressee-involved
Commissive prospective speakers-involved
Phatic utterances
Phatic utterances is to establish rapport between members of the same society.
